Thursday, April 28, 2011

Tentang Panas Bumi

Energi Geo (Bumi) thermal (panas) berarti memanfaatkan panas dari dalam bumi. Inti planet kita sangat panas- estimasi saat ini adalah,500°C (9,932° F)- jadi tidak mengherankan jika tiga meter teratas permukaan bumi tetap konstan mendekati 10°C-16°C (50°F-60°F) setiap tahun. Berkat berbagai macam proses geologi, pada beberapa tempat temperatur yang lebih tinggi dapat ditemukan di beberapa tempat.



Menempatkan panas untuk bekerja

Dimana sumber air panas geothermal dekat permukaan, air panas itu dapat langsung dipipakan ke tempat yang membutuhkan panas. Ini adalah salah satu cara geothermal digunakan untuk air panas, menghangatkan rumah, untuk menghangatkan rumah kaca dan bahkan mencairkan salju di jalan.

Bahkan di tempat dimana penyimpanan panas bumi tidak mudah diakses, pompa pemanas tanah dapat membahwa kehangatan ke permukaan dan kedalam gedung. Cara ini bekerja dimana saja karena temparatur di bawah tanah tetap konstan selama tahunan. Sistem yang sama dapat digunakan untuk menghangatkan gedung di musim dingin dan mendinginkan gedung di musim panas.

Pembangkit listrik

Pembangkit Listrik tenaga geothermal menggunakan sumur dengan kedalaman sampai 1.5 KM atau lebih untuk mencapai cadangan panas bumi yang sangat panas. Beberapa pembangkit listrik ini menggunakan panas dari cadangan untuk secara langsung menggerakan turbin. Yang lainnya memompa air panas bertekanan tinggi ke dalam tangki bertekanan rendah. Hal ini menyebabkan "kilatan panas" yang digunakan untuk menjalankan generator turbin. Pembangkit listrik paling baru menggunakan air panas dari tanah untuk memanaskan cairan lain, seperti isobutene, yang dipanaskan pada temperatur rendah yang lebih rendah dari air. Ketika cairan ini menguap dan mengembang, maka cairan ini akan menggerakan turbin generator.

Keuntungan Tenaga Panas Bumi

Pembangkit listrik tenaga Panas Bumi hampir tidak menimpulkan polusi atau emisi gas rumah kaca. Tenaga ini juga tidak berisik dan dapat diandalkan. Pembangkit listik tenaga geothermal menghasilkan listrik sekitar 90%, dibandingkan 65-75 persen pembangkit listrik berbahan bakar fosil.

Sayangnya, bahkan di banyak negara dengan cadangan panas bumi melimpah, sumber energi terbarukan yang telah terbukti ini tidak dimanfaatkan secara besar-besaran.

sumber: greenpiece indonesia

Isu Pemanasan Global

Pemanasan global dan polusi dan pembakaran bahan bakar fosil yang menyebabkan bahwa ada ancaman di seluruh dunia. Selimut ini polusi dunia, perangkap panas dan membuat efek rumah kaca yang mempengaruhi atmosfir bumi. Semua ini berdampak pada persediaan air bersih, kesehatan masyarakat, pertanian, pantai, hutan, dan banyak lagi.

Energi bersih, terbaharukan dan ramah lingkungan



Panas Bumi adalah sumber energi panas yang terkandung di dalam air panas, uap air, dan batuan bersama mineral ikutan dan gas lainnya yang secara genetik semuanya tidak dapat dipisahkan dalam suatu sistem Panas Bumi dan untuk pemanfaatannya diperlukan proses penambangan.

Pemanfaatan panas bumi relatif ramah lingkungan, terutama karena tidak memberikan kontribusi gas rumah kaca, sehingga perlu didorong dan dipacu perwujudannya; pemanfaatan panas bumi akan mengurangi ketergantungan terhadap bahan bakar minyak sehingga dapat menghemat cadangan minyak bumi

Potensi energi panas bumi di Indonesia mencakup 40% potensi panas bumi dunia, tersebar di 251 lokasi pada 26 propinsi dengan total potensi energi 27.140 MW atau setara 219 Milyar ekuivalen Barrel minyak. Kapasitas terpasang saat ini 1.194 atau 4% dari seluruh potensi yang ada.

sumber: PERTAMINA GeoThermal Energy



PANAS BUMI DI INDONESIA: PROBLEM SOLVER ATAU PROBLEM MAKER?

Kalau kita membaca judul di atas, terbayang betapa berat beban yang harus ditanggung pihak-pihak yang terkait dengan pengembangan panas bumi. Dari sekian banyak stakeholders pengembangan panas bumi, paling tidak ada 3 pihak utama, yaitu pengembang panas bumi, PLN sebagai pembeli dan pemerintah sebagai regulator.

Mengapa sampai ada pertanyaan di atas? Ini dikarenakan banyak pihak yang berpendapat, yang mengisyaratkan ketidakyakinan, apakah pengembangan panas bumi merupakan langkah yang strategis, tepat, dan ekonomis buat Negara ataukah malah sebaliknya, akan memberikan beban kepada Negara ini. Meskipun pada sisi yang lain, banyak pihak juga yang optimis bahwa panas bumi akan memberikan solusi terhadap kekurangan pasokan listrik nasional. Pertanyaan yang sering diutarakan adalah pada harga beli listrik berapa yang harus ditanggung oleh PLN.

Panas Bumi

Seperti diketahui dari data Pemerintah, bahwa Indonesia memiliki potensi panas bumi sebesar 40% cadangan dunia, yaitu mencapai 27.000 MW. Jumlah yang sangat besar apabila dapat dikembangkan dan dimanfaatkan sebaik-baiknya untuk penyediaan listrik nasional. Sampai sejauh ini, pemanfaatannya hanya sebesar 1.196 MW (4.4%) saja yang berasal dari 7 pembangkit listrik yaitu di Jawa, Sulawesi dan Sumatera Utara. Mengapa baru sebesar itu? Dalam kebijakan energy-mix ditargetkan bahwa pada tahun 2025, Indonesia harus sudah dapat memanfaatkan panas bumi sebagai sumber energi minimum 5% (atau lebih dari 1.350 MW) terhadap konsumsi energi nasional. Berdasarkan milestone-nya, sesuai yang termuat dalam Blue Print Pengelolaan Energi Nasional 2006-2025, diperlukan penambahan lebih dari 5.000 MW Pembangkit Listrik Tenaga Panasbumi (PLTP) sebelum tahun 2015. Hal ini kemudian tertuang dalam Rencana Proyek Kelistrikan 10.000 MW Tahap Kedua antara tahun 2010-2015.

Panas Bumi di Indonesia

Dari beberapa artikel yang Penulis baca, kebutuhan listrik nasional akan meningkat antara 6-10% per tahun. Dari data PLN Jawa Bali, beban puncak dari Januari sampai dengan April 2010 berkisar antara 14.000-17.000 MW (80% dari beban nasional). Apabila dihitung rata-rata sebesar 16.000 MW, maka kebutuhan listrik nasional saat ini menjadi sekitar 20.000 MW. Rata-rata margin cadangan listrik nasional saat ini adalah 20% sedangkan persentase margin yang ideal diasumsikan sebesar 35%. Dengan mempertimbangkan kehilangan listrik secara nasional rata-rata sebesar 10% (tahun 2009), maka jumlah listrik yang harus tersedia pada kuartal pertama 2010 menjadi sekitar 29.000 MW. Tingkat elektrifikasi nasional sampai dengan Oktober 2009 baru sebesar 64% (masih di bawah 50% untuk Indonesia bagian timur, sedang Jakarta hampir 100%). Target PLN adalah 80% pada tahun 2014, terutama akan tercapai dengan masuknya pengusahaan listrik oleh swasta. Bagaimana kebutuhan listrik nasional sebesar itu dapat terpenuhi? Direktur Utama PT PLN (Persero) sebelum Dahlan Iskan, Fahmi Mochtar pernah mengatakan bahwa ada 4 tantangan utama yang menjadi penghambat percepatan penyediaan energi listrik nasional yaitu keseimbangan antara supply dan demand, tarif dan subsidi, optimalisasi "fuel mix" serta keamanan penyediaan energi primer. Dari situs Berita Indonesia, April 2009, kapasitas pembangkitan pada tahun 2009 adalah sebesar 29.705 MW (Jawa-Bali 22.302 MW dan di luar Jawa-Bali sebesar 7.403 MW). Dari data ini dapat dilihat bahwa margin cadangan listrik yang kita punyai relatif kecil. Inilah salah satu penyebab mengapa masih sering terjadi shortage listrik di Jawa-Bali.



Kamojang

Sejauh mana cadangan energi nasional mampu menjawab tantangan kebutuhan listrik di atas? Menurut dokumen Departemen Energi Dan Sumber Daya Mineral, Siaran Pers Nomor 24/HUMAS DESDM/2008 pada bulan April 2008 tentang Membangun Ketahanan Energi Nasional, disebutkan bahwa pada April 2008, cadangan dan produksi energi Indonesia terdiri dari Minyak Bumi dengan sumber daya 56,6 miliar barel, cadangan 8,4 miliar barel, produksi 348 juta barel dan rasio cadangan/produksi 24 tahun. Gas bumi dengan sumber daya 334,5 TSCF, cadangan 165 TSCF, produksi 2,79 TSCF dan rasio cadangan/produksi 59 tahun. Batubara dengan sumber daya 90,5 miliar ton, cadangan 18,7 miliar ton dan produksi 201 juta ton, sedangkan rasio cadangan/produksi 93 tahun. Coal Bed Methane (CBM) dengan sumber daya 453 TSCF. Tenaga air 75,67 GW, panas bumi 27 GW, mikro hydro 0,45 GW, biomass 49,81 GW, tenaga surya 4,8 kWh/m2/day, tenaga angin 9,29 GW dan uranium 3 GW untuk 11 tahun (hanya di Kalan, Kalimantan Barat). Dari cadangan yang tersisa, bahan bakar fosil akan habis dalam waktu yang tidak terlalu lama. Dengan mengandalkan sumber energi dari fosil maka akan ada ketergantungan yang tinggi terhadap harga pasar dan kehilangan kesempatan untuk mendapatkan pendapatan/devisa dari ekspor bahan bahan bakar fosil tersebut karena pemanfaatan di dalam negeri. Panas bumi mempunyai keunikan secara alami yang tidak dipunyai oleh sebagian besar jenis energi yang lain, diantaranya adalah bahwa hasil dari panas bumi tidak dapat di-ekspor, hanya dapat dimanfaatkan di lokasi asal panas bumi tersebut dihasilkan, ramah lingkungan untuk mendukung usaha pemerintah merespon isu global warming, merupakan energi terbarukan, pengusahaannya tidak memerlukan lahan yang luas, tingkat keandalan pembangkit yang tinggi sehingga menjadi dapat alternative base-load dari PLN, bebas dari risiko kenaikan harga bahan bakar fosil, tidak tergantung dari cuaca, dan pada akhirnya dapat menggantikan sebagian dari bahan bakar fosil yang makin habis.

Pengusahaan panas bumi mempunyai keunikan dibandingkan dengan energi yang lain. Produksi dari pengusahaan hulu adalah uap panas yang sebagian besar akan dipakai untuk menggerakkan sudu-sudu pembangkit listrik. Kapasitas dan jenis pembangkit listrik dirancang dengan mempertimbangkan parameter-parameter tertentu; terutama karakteristik uap, cadangan yang tersedia di reservoir, kemampuan produksi uap per sumur, dan kondisi lokasi untuk tempat pembangkit. Hal-hal tersebut akan menentukan besarnya investasi yang akan ditanamkan. Skema pengusahaan dari hulu (produksi uap) ke hilir (produksi listrik) ini dikenal dengan skema total project. Pengusahaan dapat juga mengusahakan produksi uapnya saja, kemudian dijual ke pihak lain seperti yang terjadi di wilayah Gunung Salak, Drajat dan Lahendong. Pada saat ini investor secara umum lebih tertarik dengan skema pengembangan total project. Hal ini dapat dipahami karena dengan skema total project, pengembang dapat menjamin kepastian tidak adanya keterlambatan pemanfaatan produksi uap menjadi listrik. Namun demikian, baik skema parsial maupun total project, pengembang haruslah mendapatkan kepastian bahwa produksi uap dan listriknya dibeli dengan harga yang wajar oleh pembeli, dalam hal ini PLN. Karena PLN adalah pembeli tunggal listrik hasil pengusahaan tersebut, maka wajar apabila sebelum pengembang memutuskan suatu investasi, mulai dari mengikuti lelang wilayah panas bumi, eksplorasi dan eksploitasi, sudah harus diketahui berapa harga listrik yang akan diterima kalau berhasil memproduksi uap dan listrik. Hal ini berbeda dengan pengusahaan batubara dan migas, yang hasil produksinya dapat dijual bebas ke pasar dengan harga pasar. Karena itu dengan adanya beberapa lelang WKP yang melelangkan harga jual listrik sebagai penentu, dapat dikatakan sebagai langkah terobosan Pemerintah untuk mempercepat proses pembangunan pembangkit listrik panas bumi. Penentuan harga beli listrik ini sempat lama ditunggu oleh para pengembang, dan setelah melalui beberapa perubahan peraturan, akhirnya Pemerintah mengeluarkan Peraturan Menteri ESDM Nomor 32/2009 pada tanggal 4 Desember 2009, yang menetapkan harga patokan tertinggi pembelian tenaga listrik oleh PLN dari pembangkit listrik tenaga panas bumi sebesar 9,70 sen US$/Kwh. Harga ini sama dengan harga beli listrik yang diusulkan oleh API (Asosiasi Panas Bumi Indonesia), namun lebih tinggi dari usulan PLN yaitu sebesar 7,6 sen US$/Kwh. Usulan API dibarengi dengan rekomendasi bahwa project IRR yang menarik untuk pengembang adalah 16%, lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan usulan PLN sebesar 12%. JICA/BKF-DEPKEU melakukan kajian harga beli listrik panas bumi dan hasilnya adalah sebesar 11,9 sen US$/Kwh. Perbandingan yang lebih lengkap dapat dilihat pada tabel di bawah ini.

Apakah besaran maksimum harga beli di atas memberikan dampak positif sehingga membuat para pengembang tertarik dan segera menanamkan investasi? Dari beberapa kesempatan dan berdasarkan uraian di beberapa media, nampaknya pengembang dapat menerima ceiling price yang dikeluarkan, namun masih menyisakan kebimbangan; diantaranya adalah apakah PLN akan membeli listrik dengan hasil lelang WKP? Bagaimana dengan key terms and conditions dari Electricity Sales Contract-nya (ESC)? PLN dalam banyak kesempatan masih meyakini bahwa harga beli listrik panas bumi seharusnya sama atau lebih rendah dari batubara. Masih menurut studi JICA (West JEC), harga beli listrik batubara berfluktuasi tergantung dari harga pasar batubara. Pada harga pasar tertentu, harga beli listrik dari batubara memang masih lebih rendah dari harga beli listrik panas bumi. Dengan memakai harga listrik panas bumi hasil studi JICA, sepanjang harga pasar batubara tidak lebih dari US$ 135 per ton, maka harga beli listrik batubara masih lebih rendah dari harga beli listrik panas bumi. Hal ini tentu menyisakan pertanyaan apakah harga batubara dapat bertahan di bawah harga tersebut dalam 30 tahun ke depan seiring dengan makin menipisnya cadangannya? Bagaimana dampaknya terhadap ketahanan dan swasembada energi nasional?

Tabel 1: Harga Pembelian PLTP dengan Kapasitas 110 MW (Base Price, sen US$/Kwh)


Tabel 2: Harga Listrik Pembangkit Batubara (PLTU) Hasil Studi JICA (West JEC)


Dengan memperhitungan keunikan panas bumi, JICA (West JEC) menyatakan bahwa totalbiaya pembangkit listrik PLTU (batubara) adalah sen 17,7 sen US$/kwh, lebih mahal sebesar 5,8 sen US$ per kwh dibandingkan dengan panas bumi. Perbedaan ini disebabkan oleh selisih efisiensi pembangkit, kesempatan mendapatkan devisa dari ekspor batubara, selisih pendapatan pajak serta biaya lingkungan yang harus dibebankan untuk pengusahaan batubara.

Apakah harga beli listrik panas bumi sebesar di atas tidak memberikan beban subsisi yang semakin besar ke Negara? Memang, banyak pihak yang mengatakan bahwa sejalan dengan pengembangan panas bumi sebagai sumber tenaga listrik, maka biaya subsidi yang akan ditanggung Negara akan meningkat. Hal ini tidak tepat. Seperti diketahui bahwa BPP (Biaya Pokok Penyediaan) PLN tahun 2009 adalah sebesar US$ 10 sen sedangkan harga tertinggi listrik panas bumi yang ditetapkan adalah US$ 9,7 sen. Sehingga harga beli listrik pada lokasi yang sama (electricity grid) panas bumi secara nasional masih lebih rendah dari BPP. Dengan berjalannya waktu dan dengan terambilnya porsi listrik dari tenaga diesel yang tergantikan oleh sumber panas bumi misalnya, maka BPP tentu akan turun sehingga harga beli listrik panas bumi tidak lagi lebih rendah dari BPP.

Dari semua uraian di atas, Penulis berpendapat bahwa pengusahaan tenaga listrik dari panas bumi merupakan salah satu solusi yang tepat; terutama untuk menambah tingkat elektrifikasi nasional, meningkatkan ketahanan Negara dan swasembada di bidang listrik karena pemanfaatan sumberdaya lokal yang secara karakteristik harus dimanfaatkan di tempat (non-exportable), mendukung penuh upaya Negara dalam menurunkan efek global warming, dan di atas semua itu, pemanfaatan sumberdaya panas bumi, secara integral, tidak memberikan beban subsidi yang lebih besar kepada Negara. Salah satu kunci sukses percepatan pengembangan sumberdaya panas bumi adalah response yang cepat dari PLN dalam pencapaian kesepakatan dengan para pengembang PLTP, baik dari sisi harga beli listrik maupun dalam kesepakatan ketentuan-ketentuan dan kondisi-kondisi yang penting dalam kontrak pembelian listrik. Dan pada akhirnya, kelengkapan dan ketersediaan peraturan-peraturan pendukung secara cepat dan akurat tentu sangat diperlukan oleh PLN dan para pengembang untuk bersama-sama memajukan bangsa dan Negara ini.

Semoga...

Catatan Tentang Penulis
Win Sukardi (Ir., M. Eng, MM, MBA, M. Hum, C.P.M.), salah satu pemerhati energi dan alumni Teknik Mesin UB-1987.

sumber: 123teknik.com (media informasi ikatan alumni fakultas teknik universitas brawijaya)

Wednesday, April 27, 2011

Frys Electronic

Frys Electronics Online - Get More Bang For Your Buck

Executive Summary By Candis Reade

The advent of the internet has created a better way to make your Frys purchases, specifically, online. There are three primary ways in which Frys electronics online can make your electronics purchase a whole lot easier. First, Frys offers many selections that are only available to you online. Second, Frys online shopping service allows you to browse through thousands of available products, at your convenience, with no pressure. Third, purchases made over the internet can be delivered directly to your home, saving you the time and energy of transporting large purchases.



Online Selection



Any given Frys store only contains so many square feet. Frys electronics online is set up in a convenient format which allows you to go directly to the assortment of products you are interested in purchasing. Cameras, car electronics, PDAs and office products (and more) each occupy their own portion of the web store. Pressure Free Zone



An added bonus to shopping online is that your purchases can be delivered, right to your door. Frys electronics online especially packs each purchase to ensure that your electronics arrive safely at your door, with no scratches or other defects. An added bonus is that Frys will sometimes run free shipping promotions, such as free shipping on selected seasonal items or on purchases above a certain monetary amount.



Check my other post : Electronic Blanket

Electronic Components

Electronic Component Distributors

Executive Summary By Alison Cole

Sandwiched between original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) and suppliers, distributors of electronic components often find themselves in an awkward situation. Some, like Newark InOne of Canada, conduct testing to check if the component is compliant, and grade their suppliers accordingly. Customers will have to continue relying upon distributors to get assurance of compliance.



Among the top distributors of electronic components are Arrow Electronics, Avnet, Future Electronics, Bell Microproducts, Memec Insight, TTI, Newark InOne, Digi-key, All American and Nu Horizons. All of them distribute components like semiconductors, passives, electromechanical devices, connector products, computer equipment, embedded subsystems, crystals, test equipment, and active components, including analog, clock and timing devices, and so on.



Test Electronic Components

Executive Summary By Timothy Payn

To be able to test electronic components accurately is essential to identifying faults for any electronic repairer. Top quality electronic testing equipment is therefore much sought after.



Normally, however, this type of equipment to test electronic components can be relatively expensive, especially for do it yourself enthusiasts and people thinking about starting a small or part-time business.



There are some guides available to show beginners how to test electronic components and how to repair electronic devices and appliances. Good electronic test guides should include the following:



Secondly, make sure any guide not only explains how to make your own testing equipment but also explains which equipment to use for particular jobs, how you actually employ that equipment, what to test for and in what sequence. It's all very well to have superior testing equipment to hand but if there is no methodology to follow in testing, you will just be wasting your time.



Without doubt, working out how to test electronic components can become quite complex. Ensure any manual also covers testing for faults and shorts using an analogue meter and how to make such a meter.



Check my other post : Electronic Blanket

Sunday, April 24, 2011

kalkulasi tegangan jatuh listrik

Apa arti praktis kalkulasi tegangan jatuh listrik bagi seorang perencana listrik ketenagaan? Kalkulasi ini adalah sama artinya dengan perencanaan ukuran-ukuran kabel daya dan sistem proteksi listrik ketenagaan yang aman suatu bangunan atau utilitas plant. Contohnya jika seorang insinyur listrik diminta untuk merancang ukuran kabel 3-fasa untuk suatu pompa submersible listrik 150 HP, 380 V yang akan digunakan sebagai pompa banjir( katakan banjir lumpur Porong Sidoarjo). Pompa tersebut berjarak 125 meter dari sumber listriknya(atau panel induknya), berapa ukuran kabel yang aman, tidak panas tetapi ekonomis, kemudian berapa ukuran rating pemutus tenaga (Circuit Breaker atau Fuse) agar dapat memproteksi kabel secara aman terhadap beban lebih.

Seorang mahasiswa calon insinyur atau ahli madya yang serius belajar disiplin ilmunya seharusnya menguasai program spread-sheet excel sehingga kalkulasi kelistrikan secara umum akan lebih cepat difahami, dilatih, dan diingat terus sebagai pegangan bagi seorang praktisi listrik ketenagaan. Karena variabel-variabel ukuran kabel yang banyak, dan pembebanan arus yang juga bervariasi tergantung dari kebutuhan beban listrik, maka menggunakan program excel adalah merupakan keharusan. Berikut ini bentuk formulasi dasar tegangan jatuh dalam bentuk format excel/ppt yang dapat dikembangkan lebih jauh untuk aplikasi yang berbeda.

Kalkulasi tegangan jatuh listrik sebenarnya berdasarkan hukum Ohm kemudian ditambahkan faktor reaktansi (induktif atau kapasitif) dan faktor daya, maka formulasinya untuk aplikasi tegangan rendah sampai tegangan menengah 20 KV dapat ditulis sbb :

Tegangan jatuh = 1.732*R*I*cos f + 1.732*X*I*sin f

dimana 1.732 adalah hasil akar 3 ( beban 3-fasa), I adalah arus beban, R adalah resistansi arus bolak-balik AC ( bukan arus searah DC) , X adalah reaktansi induktif, dan cos f adalah faktor daya.

Kemudian data-data resistansi kabel dapat dicari dari buku katalog spesifikasi kabel seperti Supreme, Kabel Metal, Kabelindo, Tranka, Voksel yang bisa diminta langsung ke fabrikannya atau produk luar negeri untuk industri perminyakan seperti Pirelli atau Okonite. Data resistansi kabel pada umumnya disajikan dalam bentuk satuan Ohm per-kilometer sebagai resistansi arus searah DC, artinya resistansi terbaca jika kita mengukur dengan alat ukur Ohm-meter. Yang kita perlukan adalah resistansi AC (arus bolak-balik), kalau ditampilkan resistansi AC pada suhu 90 derajat Celsius maka resistansinya menjadi lebih besar. Umumnya suhu inti konduktor kabel yang diizinkan adalah 70 derajat Celsius, jadi resistansinya lebih kecil dari tabel.

Rumus tegangan jatuh diatas dapat diaplikasikan untuk arus searah DC maka faktor daya = 1 sehingga formulasinya untuk kabel 2 jalur adalah Tegangan jatuh = 2*R*I dimana R adalah resistansi DC ( hasil pengukuran alat Ohm-meter) dan I adalah arus searah DC.

Berapa jatuh tegangan kerja yang diizinkan. Jika tegangan rumah 220 Volt dan misalnya kita menerima dari sumber PLN hanya 200 Volt berari jatuh tegangan 10%, maka hal ini akan mengganggu performance motor listrik mesin pendingin (Air Conditioner atau Kulkas) atau pompa air. Jatuh tegangan maksimum 5% dari sumber ke beban konsumen masih dapat diterima sistem (misalnya sumber 400 Volt dan kita sebagai konsumen menerima tegangan kerja setelah dibebani sebesar 380 Volt), tetapi untuk perencanaan terkadang ada yang menetapkan 2,5 %, tergantung untuk aplikasi dimana dan semuanya akan mempengaruhi total biaya instalasi listrik.

Sebagai referensi online, pembaca dapat meng-click link-link situs Okonite atau General Electric untuk studi perbandingan aplikasi tegangan jatuh, tetapi ingat rating tegangan listrik Amerika berbeda dengan Indonesia, jadi kita harus mengkonversikan dahulu dan pula mereka menggunakan standar ukuran kabel AWG( lihat tabel konversi AWG dan mm2 dibawah). Silahkan pembaca melatih formulasi tegangan jatuh ini dengan excel dengan data dari berbagai sumber dan silahkan dikembangkan lebih jauh.

sumber: http://www.geocities.com/kelistrikan/powercable.htm (situs sudah tidak dapat dibuka karena yahoo geocities sudah menghentikan pelayanan gratisnya)

DOWNLOAD TABEL KALKULASI TEGANGAN JATUH BERDASARKAN JENIS DAN UKURAN KABEL:
DISINI !!!!

Saturday, April 23, 2011

Electrical Schematic Diagrams

Style Presentation is a primary supplier of CAD assist services to power generation and distribution corporations in North The usa, and specializes in converting archives of electrical schematic diagrams (power plants, and so forth.) into electronic format, such as paper to CAD conversion, 2D to 3D conversion and redline alterations.

To meet the exacting requirements of the industry, our crew of CAD technicians realize the will need to adhere to sector norms:
All lines shall be drawn in accordance to pre-defined snap settings Provided the volume of drawings and the require for consistency, we extensively use LISP routines to meet top quality command specifications.All drawings that form a portion of essential infrastructure data (CII) shall be marked with a CII stamp.We mention all revision facts in the drawing Electrical Schematic Diagrams

We index all drawings and documents for electronic info management techniques (EDMS) functions
Electrical power generation and distribution organizations come across Design Presentation to be a expense powerful and time-sure solution to the previously mentioned requirements. Please use the our "Get A Quote" kind to submit your specifications. We would be happy to offer you with a free of charge quotation.

Friday, April 22, 2011

Electronics Circuits

Learning to Design an Electronic Circuit Properly 

Executive Summary By Frederic C Padilla

Usually, circuit is made with some basic parts such as capacitors and resistors. Those basic parts are then built into some several combination that structure building blocks for other circuits.



Some people who have enough experiences might not find any difficulty in designing electronic circuit. First, you need to know well about the characteristics and behavior of either intermediate or advanced components of electronic circuit. Sometimes, you can find sample circuits that will help you get more information in using the parts. Some parts that usually contain this information are including semiconductors such as diodes, transistors, as well as op-amps.



Second, you should also learn more about some basic circuits used in many kinds of electronic devices. You will also get this information easily from any basic electronics text. For example, you can have more practices in modifying a Light-Emitting Diode (LED) circuit.



Simple Ways To Understand The Filter Capacitors In Electronic Circuits

Executive SummaryBy Jestine Yong

You could see mica capacitors, ceramic capacitors, tantalum capacitors, aluminum electrolytic capacitors, paper capacitors and etc. Electronic Field - Act as filter to remove ripple in power supplies;



- As inter stage signal coupling capacitors- A capacitor will not pass DC, but an AC signal will go through;



- Tuning resonant circuits, oscillator circuits;



In today's article I'm going to talks about capacitor act as filter to remove ripple from power supplies. Usually, the filter includes one or more capacitors. The capacitors are then placed between the DC line and ground. This unwanted noise signal can cause problems in electronic circuit. If all capacitors checked okay I would then move on to another circuit. Why not one filter capacitor is enough for each DC line voltage? The answer is that the big filter capacitors (large value) at the secondary side of power supplies is to smooth the DC and remove unwanted lower frequency noise.



Check my other post : Tyco Electronics

Projects in Electronics

Methods For Distributing Information on Projects

Executive Summary By Gina Abudi

Ensuring that the right people (such as stakeholders, project team members, project sponsors, etc.) get the right information at the right time for project status updates and to make decisions on projects requires a great deal of planning.  Communication Methods



    * Project team meeting

    * Stakeholder meetings

    * Portal or project intranet site

    * Collaborative work management tools



There are pros and cons to different methods of distributing (communicating) project information. General Categories of Communication



    * Face-to-face communications (group or individual meetings)

    * Hard-copy communications (letters, memorandum, reports)

    * Electronic communications (email, conference calls, web conferencing)



Hard-copy communications can really be combined with the category of electronic communications.  Given the shortage of time, tight budget controls, the need for project managers to manage multiple projects, and project team members spread out over the country or in different countries, electronic communication methods are quite common.  There are various methods of electronic communications and you may deploy a certain method depending on the communication need.  Communication Management Plan



(Reference: Project Management Body of Knowledge, 4th Edition, Chapter 10: Project Communications Management, Section 10.2.3)



    * Stakeholder requirements for communication

    * Reason for the distribution of the information (e.g., share information, make decisions)

    * Time frame and frequency of communications

    * Person responsible for communication of information

    * Methods or tools used to convey information (e.g., email, meetings)

    * Resources allocated for communicating information including time expectations and budget

    * Method for updating and refining the communications management plan

    * Flow charts depicting information flow in the project including workflows with sequence of authorization, reporting, meeting plans, etc.

    * Company policies around communications

    * Size of the project and number of individuals involved, project complexity

    * Project alignment to organizational goals

    * Other factors relevant to your project, company, stakeholders, etc.



Basic Electronic Components and Supplies Needed by the Electronics Newbie

Executive Summary By Andy Bauer



Basic Components and Supplies to Start Out



Working on electronic projects is a great way of learning electronics and depending upon the project undertaken, a number of tools and electronic components may be needed accordingly. Carbon film resistors are a good choice for small electronic projects.

Ceramic disc capacitors or electrolytic capacitors are both good choices for beginning electronics projects, and again, a good variety would be needed in terms of values. Signal diodes are also a good buy for electronic projects and these electronic components find application in a number of projects. The next electronic component to consider would be rectifier diodes which are needed in power supplies. Transistors are the next electronic components to be considered. I recommend TO92 package for beginners.



A switch is a good component to have on hand. Depending upon the circuits and projects, some integrated circuits would also be needed. Depending on your project, how about a project box or enclosure?



Check my other post : Tyco Electronics

Electronics Projects

Electronic Projects Makes Learning Basic Electronic Theory and Skills Fun

Executive Summary By Wendy Pan

The other school favors the hands-on approach that combines learning theory while conducting experiments and while building practical projects. Building simple electronics projects allows the student to see electronic theory in action, and it allows them to develop essential skills like soldering, disordering, working with pc (printed circuit) boards, etc.



Carl's AK-100 Learn to Solder Kit is one of those simple electronics projects that not only teach you how to solder, it teaches you another essential skill, how to read color codes, while building a working electronic siren. Well you can buy the box and then install the electronic playback unit that you have built from a kit. Carl's Music Box kit is another of those simple electronics projects that allows you to practice the skills that you have already learned while developing new skills and mastering new theory. Enjoy your newfound hobby of building simple electronics projects. Carl's is just one o many online sources for electronic kits, tools, and supplies.



Fun Electronic Projects for Kids

Executive SummaryBy Bill Adamson



The excitement of building electronic projects that actually work provides a great learning process for young kids exploring the field of electronics.



Learning by Doing



Many of today's computer games do have some redeeming value for learning. A child can develop good eye-hand coordination, learn by trial and error, and strengthen memory by recalling various sequences when sent back to prior levels of play. However, a parent's dilemma may revolve around their child's obsessive use of computer games.



When the "puzzle" of electronic projects with various loose parts is presented to your child a whole new avenue of learning develops.



It Works!



There are several electronics kits suitable for your child available in internet stores.





Check my other post : Power Electronics

Consumer Electronics

Tips On Consumer Electronics

Executive Summary By Zola Mathe

The evolution of consumer electronics, high definition displays, digital broadcasts, displays and media is happening at an increasingly rapid pace.



From analog to digital, consumer electronics are now evolving with (Wireless Fidelity) technology. Are you concerned about having the latest technology when you make your next purchase in consumer electronics? Fundamentally, the changes in the consumer electronics industry are not being driven by product evolution, but by fluctuations in the industries business models.



Now for the fun part the consumer electronics that entertain us! When buying consumer electronics, its best to know what to expect before you buy. The newest trend is that an individual seller conducts consumer electronics auctions mostly online.



Portable consumer electronics are sufficiently compact, lightweight and easy mobility. Digitization, miniaturization and mobility are the key elements for modern consumer electronic products. Some of the best sources of electronics products are wholesalers, who are individuals or businesses that sell products by bulk at discounted prices. The consumer electronic segment is ever changing. Shopping for consumer electronics can be difficult because you have so many options.



Consumer Electronics Guides

Executive Summary By Thomas Morva



Consumer electronics guides are a leading source of information for those interested in consumer electronics. Major users of consumer electronic guides include manufacturers, retailers, consumers and others directly or indirectly associated with the consumer electronics industry.



The consumer electronic segment is ever changing. New products and improvements for existing products are created everyday, induced by the convergence of technologies, products and markets. Consumer electronics guides are very helpful in popularizing these products. Consumer electronic guides have a vital role in providing reliable and relevant information about the various products marketed everyday.



There are various types of consumer electronic guides. Both offline and online consumer electronic guides are available.



Check my other post : Power Electronics

Tyco Electronic

How to Comply With Sarbanes Oxley and Protect the Interests of Your Employees, Vendors and Investors

Executive Summary By T Rhodes

 Sarbanes-Oxley, otherwise known as SOX, regulates financial accountability and information accessibility. It enhances standards for both public companies and public accounting firms. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act is designed to protect the interests of employees, vendors and investors. Why IT Controls is So Important When Complying with Sarbanes Oxley



Under the Act, ultimate responsibility for data management, security, reliability, integrity and accuracy reside collectively with the Chief Information Officer (CIO), the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and the Chief Financial Officer (CFO). Pursuant to Sarbanes-Oxley, the CIO is accountable for the systems that control and report financial data, while the CEO and CFO are accountable for actual financial reporting.



2. Control



3.Accountability.



All corporations should take the following steps toward Sarbanes-Oxley compliance:



    * Implement a solid technological structure promoting effective and efficient compliance processes

    * Expand information flow and collaboration

    * Document accurate and timely financial reconciliations using Excel, Access or other customized technology solutions

    * Document IT systems' usage rules and develop a financial information audit trail

    * Implement risk-rating processes for all financial accounts

    * Understand and map financial reporting process, IT systems and internal controls

    * Identify financial reporting, IT and internal control risks

    * Document and test controls

    * Perform and update controls assessments corresponding with any financial reporting process changes



Check my other post : Electronic Circuit

Electronic Drum

A Complete Guide For Electronic Drums

Executive Summary By Victor Epand

 Drums and drum sets form quite a variety and is almost an integral part of many different cultures.

What is Electronic Drums

Electronic drums are kind of percussion instruments where the sound is produced by an electronic waveform generator or sampler instead of by acoustic vibration. The electronic drummer has virtually boundless prospects for configuring many different sounding drum kits from one set of electronic drums, because of its capacity to assign diverse sounds to any given pad.

Electronic drummers, also add up, in sampling non-percussive sounds to use them as drum sounds. Electronic Drums Module

The modern drum modules are bundled with amazing features and the power to create unlimited drum kits. Acoustic drum kits build their sound through physical divisions of the drums, such as the shell, head and trapped air pressure within the drums.

Market for Electronic Drums

There are four electronic drum companies that control the market today. Drum kits being manufactured today have dealt with many of the inadequacies of early electronic drums.



The Benefits of Using an Electronic Drum Set

Executive Summary By Jamie Hanson



Likewise you had acoustic drums and nowadays the electronic drums have taken the music field. The acoustic drums are built to sound loud which gives a body shaking sound when attached to a live stage performance.

Acoustic drums cannot be silent whereas the electronic drum sets can be set for sound depending on the surroundings it is being played. The traditional drum disturbs the neighborhood. Similarly, in an acoustic drum you require to tune the drums and cymbals every time you perform. More advanced and high end electronic sets produce the sound which can be said to be near as an acoustic drum.

Traditional drums lose their sound when coming into moisture contact. Electronic drum set offers you with different selection of sound and sound level. While in the event of electronic drum it has several types of sound effects.

Initially the electronic drum sets were costly and was used by high level professionals.



Check my other postElectronic Circuit

Wednesday, April 20, 2011

Electronics Components

Understanding the Basic Aspects of Electronic Components

Executive Summary By Eli Kahn

 To understand the purpose of electronic components, it is important to first have a grasp on the basics of electronics. Some of the main electronic components are:



Resistors - A resistor is a component that is used to resist the flow of electricity, allowing only the desired amount to flow through. Resistor strength is measured in OHMs, but since there is generally a high resistance level, the prefixes kilo(k) and Mega(M) are used to delineate the strength. The capacitor strength is measured in farads(F) and uses the prefixes micro (millionth), nano (thousand-millionth), and pico (million-millionth) to measure its strength. These components are extremely small, so similar to the resistors, the capacitors are color coded to display the strength.



Diodes and Transistors - These both deal with modifying the flow of the electrical current. Both diodes and transistors are integral electrical components, and allow electronics to run smoothly.



How an Electronic Component Distributor Can Help Your Business


Executive Summary By Yaun Hung



It's a universal fact that electronic components are essential part of any electronic gadget or appliance. A reliable component distributor can contribute positively towards the growth of any manufacturer. Quality certification like ISO etc. is another factor that differentiates good part distributors from average ones.



Any top electronic distributor will always have a vast inventory of all type of components. Good distributors of electronic components have specific team of well trained qualified and experienced technicians who understand your requirements well. ChipChecker is foremost and reliable electronic component distributor known for top notch quality and quickest delivery in electronic industry.



Check my other post : Electronic arts

Electronic Stores

Shopping at an Electronic Store

Executive Summary By Keith S 

From simplest of items like an electronic toothbrush, shaver, and toaster to things like computers, network systems, lightings and generators we are surrounded by a myriad of electronic items all around us. Where do these items come from? Electronic stores. Our electronic stores are filled with machines and gadgets that make our lives so much easier.

Electronic items are an undeniable truth of our lives and we would not be able to go about our routines if someone were to wipe all electronic items off the planet. Purchasing electronics has become easier with huge stores always within reach. Most stores also offer delivery services hence relieving you of the hassle of hiring movers to shift heavy duty items from the store to your office or house.



Almost all big electronic stores have websites over the internet and provide the facility of online shopping. Electronic stores also publish reviews of their customers online and you can always benefit from those as well.



No doubt shopping has become much easier with the availability of electronic items and gadgets at electronic stores.



The Top Electronic Stores For Shopping

Executive Summary By Nia Peters



Best Buy is one of the top electronic stores in the country today. They have a wide range of electronics from computers to a new kitchen stove. Best Buy has one of the most extensive range of consumer electronics available anywhere.



Sears is another of the top electronic stores. They carry a limited number of different brands and are most famous for their own brand names in the Kenmore line. With many of their own name brand electronics they offer extended warranties.



Radio Shack is another company that falls into the top electronic stores. Their stores are packed with a multitude of different electronics from toys to computers and televisions. They are famous for their own brand name, and their stores sell these over other name brands. Although not that well known for large electronics, they carry one of the widest ranges of small electronics. Comp USA is another company that sells electronics. As well, their website offers special deals for their online customers. Rounding off the top electronic stores is Frys. This store, like Comp USA, carries a wide range of electronic products.



Check my other post : Electronic arts

Tuesday, April 19, 2011

Electronic Blanket

Tips On Safe Electric Blanket Use

Executive Summary By Jennifer R Scott

An electric blanket is a great way to lower your heating bills and still remain comfortable during those cold nights. Firstly, there is a higher risk of danger from fire with old or worn blankets. If you own an old model, it may be time to upgrade your blanket to avoid a potential fire. The same applies with a worn blanket.



The electromagnetic field

The range of electromagnetic field can range from gamma rays and x-rays to the ELF (extremely low frequency) field associated with most household appliances including the electric blanket.



Can a diabetic use an electric blanket?

There have been many published warnings that people who suffer from diabetes should not use an electric blanket. Again it is safe to warm a bed using a blanket, but not advised to sleep under one.



Is it safe to use an electric blanket with a pacemaker?

Areas could become bunched and force the blanket to overheat. Alternatives include a hot water bottle, an extra blanket and wearing socks to bed.



Remote Control - The Adult Security Blanket

Executive Summary By Sam Robertson



People become terribly possessive of the remote. I've seen grown men fall asleep clutching onto the remote like a toddler with a teddy bear. I once overheard someone (I won't name names) speculate on the possibility of addictive properties in the remote's plastic casing, designed to leach into peoples' skin, or emit mind-altering gasses into the air, predisposing handlers to develop an unreasonable attachment to the remote itself, as well as a desire to witness copious quantities of TV programming. Anyone who's busy watching television isn't out recklessly wasting money (even the best cable channels or satellite TV packages don't require the extravagant resources tapped into for gambling, or shoe shopping) and watching TV isn't going to hurt anyone. There's no shortage of educational shows or thought-provoking documentaries on television.



TV viewing can be therapeutic. Part security blanket, part therapist, that little remote is a truly valuable household accessory.



Check my other postTc electronics

Tyco Electronics

What is an AMP LightCrimp Plus Connector?

Executive Summary By Colin Yao

 The AMP LightCrimp Plus connectors are one type of quick termination fiber optic connector which requires no epoxy and no polish as standard epoxy and polish fiber connectors.



The LightCrimp Plus connector has a pre-polished fiber stub in the connector body. The AMP LightCrimp line has two connector types: LightCrimp and LightCrimp Plus. The LightCrimp Plus connector requires no epoxy and no polishing. This type of connector is very rugged too compared to other quick termination fiber

connectors.



Wells Fargo Security

Executive Summary By Bud Lyons



Did you know Wells Fargo Security started here in Buffalo New York? Wells Fargo Security actually got its start in Buffalo New York.



Henry Wells as a child moved to central New York State. In 1844 Henry Wells and William Fargo and another partner had organized Wells Fargo and company. A successful express company it merged with American Express in 1850 with William Fargo as secretary. Wells Fargo Security took the need that the gold rush had provided and handled an express company between and New York City and San Francisco. Wells Fargo Security was always part of the action keeping the express company assets and banking business safe. William George Fargo severed as President of the American Express Company in 1868. We can't forget Henry Wells when talking about his company. Mr. Wells made his home in Aurora New York and founded Wells Seminary, now Wells College.



From 1852 forward, this Security company left Buffalo New York and concentrated on the business out west. In May of 1998 TYCO purchased Wells Fargo Security and merged the company with ADT alarms. Did you know Wells Fargo Security started here in Buffalo New York? Wells Fargo Security actually got its start in Buffalo New York.



In 1844 Henry Wells and William Fargo and another partner had organized Wells Fargo and company. A successful express company it merged with American Express in 1850 with William Fargo as secretary. Wells Fargo Security was always part of the action keeping the express company assets and banking business safe. William George Fargo severed as President of the American Express Company in 1868. Mr. Wells made his home in Aurora New York and founded Wells Seminary, now Wells College.



In May of 1998 TYCO purchased Wells Fargo Security and merged the company with ADT alarms.



Check my other post: Tc electronics



Power Electronics

Inverter - The Power Backup

Executive Summary By Ron Victor

An inverter has the capacity to change the DC power into AC power which can be used for generating devices like kitchen appliances, computers, power tools and many more by just plugging the devices into the inverter. Low powered inverters are designed specially for low powered electronic appliances. Huge powerful inverters can be used for multiple small appliances or huge device that needs a high power requirement. The stand-alone inverter is the most familiar category of power inverter.

The two common types of power inverters: true-sine wave or modified-sine wave. True-sine wave inverters create power that is moreover identical to the public utility power grid system. Waveform is considered when choosing a power inverter.

An inverter charger combines power inverter and battery charger and transfer it to single unit.



Power Inverter Uses and Variations - Auto, Car, Boat, Laptops

Executive Summary By Brandon M. Leibowitz



Power Inverters, also known as power supply units or power converters, are a great way to power electronic devices when there is not a ready electrical outlet present but there is DC power available. The basic concept of a power inverter is that it can convert a car's 12 volt direct current power into the same type of alternating current power available from a wall socket, enabling electronics to charge while traveling.

On the market you can find an ever-increasing number of different power inverters. There are power inverters that can provide power for one, two, three, or four plugs simultaneously. There are also power inverters that contain USB ports that can charge USB-enabled devices; this can add to the functionality of your power inverter if you carry around devices like the popular iPhone.

Power inverters also differ in the amount of power they supply.



Check my other post: Ultimate electronics



Electronic Circuit

Learning to Design an Electronic Circuit Properly

Executive Summary By Frederic C Padilla

Circuit is made with some basic parts such as capacitors and resistors. Those basic parts are then built into some several combination that structure building blocks for other circuits.

Some people who have enough experiences might not find any difficulty in designing electronic circuit.

First, you need to know well about the characteristics and behavior of either intermediate or advanced components of electronic circuit. Sometimes, you can find sample circuits that will help you get more information in using the parts. Some parts that usually contain this information are including semiconductors such as diodes, transistors, as well as op-amps.

Second, you should also learn more about some basic circuits used in many kinds of electronic devices. You will also get this information easily from any basic electronics text. For example, you can have more practices in modifying a Light-Emitting Diode (LED) circuit.

By following those simple steps, you will easily get used to design electronic circuit properly.



Veroboard and How to Construct an Electronics Circuit

Executive Summary By Alfred Chai Wei Liang



In electronics, one has to know about circuit building. Circuit building is an essential skill if one is interested to build robots. There are the bread board, 'vero board' and 'PCB' (printed circuit board). These three are the types of electronics circuits. A 'vero board' will have many holes lined up horizontally and vertically. If you have ten horizontal rows of holes, then you have ten horizontal wires. To insert the components into the board, you have to solder. Soldering is whereby you heat up the soldering iron tip until it is hot enough. Be wary of cold solder joints. A cold joint contains holes and cracks and voids inside.



Check my other post: Ultimate electronics



Electronic Arts

Electronic Arts Shocks The Video Game Industry

Executive Summary By Sayed Islam

 The game company known for the Madden video games and Lord of The Rings video games (Electronic Arts) has decided to purchase BioWare/Pandemic. Then, Electronic Arts did the remarkable Lord of The Rings games. Electronic Arts keeps making unbelievable decision after unbelievable decision. The future looks bright for Electronic Arts. More importantly, Electronic Arts will own the rights to MASS EFFECT!!! What does all this mean for Electronic Arts? For right now, BioWare/Pandemic and Electronic Arts are separate video game companies. January 2008 is when Electronic Arts will overtake BioWare/Pandemic. If Mass Effect comes to the PlayStation 3, then owners of the PlayStation 3 will give Electronic Arts a standing ovation.



Electronic Arts Giving Xbox 360 Preferential Treatment



An Electronic Arts representative admitted that the Xbox 360 has its advantages over the PlayStation 3. When the PlayStation 2 and Xbox first made their debut, it was easier for game developers to make games on the PlayStation 2. This was because game companies had more time to work with the PlayStation 2 than they did with the Xbox. As time progressed, games on the Xbox were as time consuming to make as they were on the PlayStation 2.



It simply means that video game companies need more time to work with the PlayStation 3's hardware. After gaming companies know how to utilize the PlayStation 3 to its full potential, PlayStation 3 will no longer be at the mercy of the Xbox 360.



Check my other post: Electronics circuit



Monday, April 18, 2011

HOT!TC Electronics

How to Protect Your Electronics From Heat

Executive Summary By Darrell Edward Smith

Tonysystem, - 1.0 INTRODUCTION

    * DVD Players

    * Gaming Systems (e.g., Playstation, X-Box, Nintendo, Wii, etc.)

    * Heat

    * Electrical Surge/Spike Events, and

    * Electrical Noise



    * How is Heat destructive to your electronics?

    * What can we do about heat - How to Protect Your Electronics from Heat and Extend the Operating Life of our Electronics?



2.0 HOW IS HEAT DESTRUCTIVE TO YOUR ELECTRONICS

Heat is an artifact of electronics. All electronic systems generate heat. Electronic systems accept electrical power (current and voltage) from the power line (via the electrical outlet). The remaining portion of this electrical power is converted into heat.



However, heat is also an enemy of electronic systems. Few things are more effective in reducing the operating life-time of an electronic system, than raising the operating temperature of the electronic circuitry within your electronic system. The impact of heat (in shortening the operating life) of your electronics is "huge".



3.0 WHAT CAN WE DO ABOUT HEAT?

As I mentioned earlier, all electronics generates heat.

3.1. REMOVING HEAT FROM THE ELECTRONICS

Many consumer electronic systems were designed with "Heat Removal" in mind. Some of these electronic systems (like desktop computers) contain "internal fans". These fans were designed into these systems so that they could blow air through the area in which the system electronics resides. Other electronic systems contain "vents" (in their outer case) to provide an "escape path" for heat. Make sure and have your appliances (like your Central Air Conditioning system or Heat Pump) serviced.

3.2 REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF HEAT THAT THE ELECTRONICS GENERATE IN THE FIRST PLACE

Another approach to protecting your electronics from heat is to take steps to try to prevent your electronics from generating excessive heat in the first place.     * I represents the amount of current flowing through an electronic system and



    * R represents the load impedance (or resistance) within this electronic system; and



The answer to this question is "Yes", an electrical system does require a certain amount of current and voltage (electrical power) to do its job. By using the TVSS components, you are eliminating this excessive current (due to noise, glitches, etc.) from the "power line" current, flowing into your electronic system.



1. You have decreased the amount of current flowing into your electronic system, (which is the "I" in the expression "I^2 X R") - which helps a lot to reduce the amount of heat that the system generates.

2. By reducing the heat that the electrical system generates, you are now lowering the ambient (or surrounding) temperature in which your electronics operates.

3. Lowering the ambient temperature will often times also reduce the load impedance/resistance in your electronic system (e.g., the "R" in this expression) as well.



QUESTION: How can you reduce the load impedance/resistance in an electronic system? Isn't that a design feature of the electronic system?     * Using TVSS components lower the amount of current flowing through your electronic system.

    * Lowering this current reduces the amount of heat that the electronic system generates.

    * This lowers the ambient temperature for the system electronics.

    * Lowering the ambient temperature also lowers the load impedance/resistance (R) within the electronic system.



Both the reduction of current (and the resulting reduction of the load impedance) would serve to significantly reduce the amount of heat that the electronics system will generates.



    * How to Protect Your Electronics from Electrical Surge/Spike Events

    * How to Protect Your Electronics from Electrical Noise



    * Electrical Surge/Spike Events, and

    * Electrical Noise



1. Use (and do not thwart) the "Heat Removal" features of your electronic systems



2. Use TVSS (Transient Voltage Surge Suppressor) components to regulate the amount of voltage (and in turn) current that is flowing into your electronic systems: Minimizes heat generation due to resistive loss.



Check my other post: Electronics circuit



HOT!Ultimate Electronics

 The Ultimate Electronics Gift

Executive Summary By John Granholm

Tonysystem, - So what will they watch TV on? A high definition TV is a must for any home entertainment system, and is an excellent addition to any household that enjoys movies, sports events, TV programs, and video games. Samsung, Sony, Panasonic, and Pioneer are all technologically-advanced companies with great selections of HD TVs in a wide range of prices.

For the home entertainment system buff that truly has it all, test drive Bang & Olufsen's 103-inch plasma TV, the largest high definition screen available. The sports fan in your life will be forever indebted to you once you present them with a Samsung 70 Series HD LCD monitor, which uses HD TV technology to produce the most crisp, clear image ever seen, on an otherwise standard-looking flat screen computer monitor.



Facts About the Ultimate Attenuator

Executive Summary By Gavin Cruise

This attenuator functions similarly with other attenuators such as the fiber attenuator, Weber attenuator, and digital attenuator. The attenuator provides signal load in an easy way for the amplifier's output transformer circuit.

The following are some of the features of the electronic device: 100 watt maximum output, non-stepped continuous volume controller, bedroom switch, true bypass switching, dual speaker output jacks, plexi switch,100 volts tap fixed alternating current (AC) output, quiet cooling fan, variable line level output, and an all-steel construction. Because it uses a load resistor with 30 ohm, the Ultimate Attenuator can receive signal loads of 4, 8, 16 ohms from the guitar's amplifier.

The attenuator's built-in low impedance power amplifier helps to achieve strong and high frequency response. The attenuator is also compatible with Mullard power tubes. The latest version of the Ultimate Attenuator is the Nude 24 position model.



Check my other post: Electronic music



Friday, April 15, 2011

Mini Audio Amplifier circuit by BC559-BC549

This is very small audio amplifier circuit which can be handled just with 1.5V DC battery. This circuit just need very small power to work.
The maximum output current is IP=VP/RL=62,5mA. If the transistor beta is B=150 then the maximum base current is about 400µA. This is quite much for an amplifier input so a preceding stage is very useful. IC designers normally would even build a 3 or 4 stage amplifier (and e.g. a 20 transistor bias circuit), but our PA should be as simple as possible. For maximum power gain in a direct coupled (best for low component count) amplifier the common emitter configuration is best suited, and a CB or CC stage is much worse. At low voltages a CC also has the disadvantage that the output voltage smaller than the input voltage by VBE. If you want to drive a CE stage from a CC stage you need an input voltage of 2·VBE»1,4V, which is nearly impossible form a single cell supply. Two CE stages are much easier to connect, but this makes feedback more difficult because the total amplifier will be noninverting. A solution will be a differential pair which has nearly the same characteristics like a single CE stage but features an inverting and a noninerting input. A further advantage is that the inherent temparature compensation makes the biasing more stable.

Source: http://www.weberconnect.de/nfpa2.htm

Digital Volume Control circuit with DS1669

This is digital volume control circuit which uses DS1669 as the main volume control. This is stereo volume control, you can use stereo push button switch for to control both channel by together.
source: http://audio-circuits.blogspot.com/2009/10/digital-volume-control-circuit-with.html

Sunday, April 3, 2011

picture of a transistor


picture of a transistor


transistor pictures
image transistor

transistor photo
photo transistor circuits

picture of transistor



Friday, April 1, 2011

SN14011J SN14020J SN248651T datasheet


SN14002J SN14011J SN14011J SN14020J SN14020J SN248651TSN248651T SN248651T- SN248651TSN24LC018 SN24LC018 SN5410W SN5410W SN5437N SN5437N SN5473N SN5473N SN5477J SN5477J SN5486JSN5486JSN5486J- SN5486J SN5495J SN5495J SN54C42AJ SN54C42AJ SN54F03AJ SN54F03AJ SN54F12AJ SN54F12AJSN54F21AJ SN54F21AJSN54F299J SN54F299J SN54F30AJ SN54F30AJ SN54F398J SN54F398J SN54F569J SN54F569J SN54H10AJ SN54H10AJSN54L121T SN54L121TSN54L374J SN54L374J SN54L93 SN54L93 SN54LS104 SN54LS104 SN54LS109W SN54LS109W SN54LS113 SN54LS113SN54LS122 SN54LS122SN54LS131 SN54LS131 SN54LS140 SN54LS140 SN54LS163W SN54LS163W SN54LS203 SN54LS203 SN54LS212SN54LS212 SN54LS221 SN54LS221SN54LS221/J SN54LS221 SN54LS230 SN54LS230 SN54LS302 SN54LS302 SN54LS311 SN54LS311 SN54LS320SN54LS320 SN54LS401 SN54LS401SN54LS410 SN54LS410 SN54LS500 SN54LS500 SN54LSO8J SN54LSO8J SN54S05 SN54S05 SN54S106J SN54S106JSN54S115J SN54S115JSN54S124J SN54S124J SN54S133J SN54S133J SN54S133J- SN54S133J SN54S142J SN54S142J SN54S151J SN54S151JSN54S160J SN54S160JSN54S205J SN54S205J SN54S214J SN54S214J SN54S223J SN54S223J SN54S232J SN54S232J SN54S241J SN54S241JSN54S241J- SN54S241JSN54S241J/883B SN54S241J SN54S250J SN54S250J SN54S304J SN54S304J SN54S313J SN54S313J SN54S322JSN54S322J SN54S331J SN54S331JSN54S340J SN54S340J SN54S403J SN54S403J SN54S412J SN54S412J SN54S421J SN54S421J SN54S520J SN54S520JSN7405AN SN7405ANSN7405N TI SN7405NTI SN7406N00 SN7406N00 SN7409AJ SN7409AJ SN74107 SN74107 SN74116 SN74116 SN74125SN74125SN74143 SN74143 SN7414N TI SN7414NTI SN74161 SN74161 SN74170 SN74170 SN74251 SN74251 SN7441ANSN7441ANSN7450N TI SN7450NTI SN7490AJ SN7490AJ SN74AC573M SN74AC573M SN74AC573MDWD SN74AC573MDWDSN74AS00 SN74AS00 SN74AS00- SN74AS00SN74AS86N SN74AS86N SN74AS95N SN74AS95N SN74CBTD3 SN74CBTD3 SN74F00N SN74F00N SN74F00N-SN74F00N SN74F04J SN74F04JSN74F04J/DC SN74F04J SN74F09NS SN74F09NS SN74F112DR SN74F112DR SN74F112DRE4 SN74F112DRE4SN74F13J SN74F13J SN74F21NE4 SN74F21NE4SN74F22J SN74F22J SN74F27NS SN74F27NS SN74F27NS J SMD SN74F27NS SN74F27NS(Tube) SN74F27NSSN74F28D SN74F28D SN74F30NE4 SN74F30NE4SN74F32MX SN74F32MX SN74F32MX U SMD(SOIC) SN74F32MX SN74F38DG4 SN74F38DG4 SN74F40J SN74F40JSN74F64D SN74F64D SN74F74DG4 SN74F74DG4SN74H11J SN74H11J SN74H20J SN74H20J SN74HA74 SN74HA74 SN74HC09 SN74HC09 SN74HC107M SN74HC107MSN74HC107M96 SN74HC107M96SN74HC107MD SN74HC107MD SN74HC125M SN74HC125M SN74HC125MD SN74HC125MD SN74HC27 SN74HC27SN74HC373H SN74HC373H SN74HC373HDW SN74HC373HDWSN74HOOJ SN74HOOJ SN74JS09J SN74JS09J SN74KS13N SN74KS13N SN74LC14 SN74LC14 SN74LC32 SN74LC32SN74LS 03N SN74LS03NSN74LS 30N SN74LS30N SN74LS01P SN74LS01P SN74LS03N SN74LS03N SN74LS03N- SN74LS03N SN74LS03N(9601*25 9414*7) SN74LS03N SN74LS03N MOT SN74LS03NSN74LS03N TI SN74LS03N SN74LS03N/NEW SN74LS03N SN74LS04M SN74LS04M SN74LS07J SN74LS07J SN74LS12NSN74LS12N SN74LS12N- SN74LS12NSN74LS12N TI SN74LS12N SN74LS12N/NEW SN74LS12N SN74LS16J SN74LS16J SN74LS21N SN74LS21N SN74LS21N-SN74LS21N SN74LS21N MOT SN74LS21NSN74LS21N TEXAS SN74LS21N SN74LS21N TI SN74LS21N SN74LS21N(PDIP) SN74LS21N SN74LS21N/NEWSN74LS21N SN74LS25J SN74LS25J SN74LS30N SN74LS30NSN74LS30N- SN74LS30N SN74LS30N MOT SN74LS30N SN74LS30N TI SN74LS30N SN74LS30N(PDIP) SN74LS30NSN74LS30N/NEW SN74LS30N SN74LS38240DBR SN74LS38240DBRSN74LS38244 SN74LS38244 SN74LS38244DB SN74LS38244DB SN74LS38244DBR SN74LS38244DBR SN74LS38245SN74LS38245

no datasheet now


SM532044082X3S6 datasheet

SM037D1BRBHK1TB
SM037D1BRBHK1TB
SM1VR470MQPN0812
SM1VR470MQPN0812
SM532044082X3S6/8117405B60
SM532044082X3S6
SM532044082X3S6/MT4C4M4E8DJ
SM532044082X3S6
SM532044082X3S6/TC5117405CS
SM532044082X3S6
SM681000LLP07
SM681000LLP07SMCG18A-HE3/57T
SMCG18AHE3

SL1215-681KR58-PF SL1215681KR58PF SLA2/180B3.2SNOR SLA2180B32SNOR SLA24C02SP SLA24C02SPSLA7026MLF872 SLA7026MLF872 SLA7042M SANKEN 04 SLA7042MSANKEN SLA7062MLF2102 SLA7062MLF2102

SL1215-681KR58-PF
SL1215681KR58PF
SLA2/180B3.2SNOR
SLA2180B32SNOR
SLA24C02SP
SLA24C02SP
SLA7026MLF872
SLA7026MLF872
SLA7042M SANKEN 04
SLA7042MSANKEN
SLA7062MLF2102
SLA7062MLF2102

no datasheet now

SKD100/04/06 SKD1000406 SKD100/12/16 SKD1001216 datasheet

SKD100/04/06 SKD1000406 SKD100/12/16 SKD1001216


datasheet  found now

tranzistor 2n3904


tranzistor 2n3904 datasheet pdf
transistor 2n3904 datasheet
transozitor 2n3904 datasheet
transistores 2n3904
2n3904 tranzistor NPN General Purpose Amplifier
This device is designed as a general purpose amplifier and switch.
The useful dynamic range extends to 100 mA as a switch and to
100 MHz as an amplifier.
tranzistor 2n3904 datasheet pdf download 

Dual LED Flasher by transistor 2N2907

This circuit calls more Free Running Multivibrator work resemble Flip Flop. Which encourage itself repeatedly. The Q1 and Q2 be Transistor PNP be usable general (2N3906,2N2907, etc.) The R1 and R2 limit current that flow through LED the bilateral. If enhance the value C1 and C2 the rate something Flasher slow down. Request friends have fun LED Flasher , this please sir.

Dual LED Flasher by transistor  2N2907